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SCALE INTERACTIONS. "It is my conviction that different levels of learning are capable at different scales, but that there are invariably interactional effects such that the same learning activity at one scale may produce a different level of learning on another scale." http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12304-013-9164-x View in LinkedIn

COMPLEX COGNITION NOT REQUIRED. "Plants’ risk sensitivity reinforces the oft-repeated assertion that complex adaptive strategies do not require complex cognition (adaptive strategies may be complex for us to understand, without necessarily being complex for organisms to implement)." http://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(16)30459-6 View in LinkedIn

RISK PROFILES. "The fact that Pisum (pea) showed sufficient phenotypic plasticity to switch from risk proneness to risk aversion as a function of circumstances is striking because such switch in risk preference has often been predicted and claimed in animals, but the empirical evidence for it is unreliable." http://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(16)30459-6 View in LinkedIn

RISK SENSITIVITY. "Pea Plants Show Risk Sensitivity. Our results are among the strongest observed reliable switches between risk proneness and risk aversion as a function of resource availability, not just in plants but in any organism other than humans, and the first characterization of risk sensitivity outside species with nervous systems." http://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(16)30459-6 View in LinkedIn

CYCLIC EFFECTS. "When plants learn, they change their behaviour, which in turn shapes their environments. The changing environments may modify the selection pressures on the plants in turn." http://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(16)30459-6 View in LinkedIn

"THE FOURTH SCALE includes species scale, phylogenetic changes. Through natural selection, a species “learns” certain adaptive behaviours, makes novel semiotic distinctions and behavioural interpretants, as when a plant species co-evolves a flower morphology in tempo with the needs of a fellow co-evolving pollinator. Learning takes on a very different sense here as it is no longer associated with anything potentially experiential or phenomenal." http://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(16)30459-6 View in LinkedIn

PLANT CULTURE. "This scale indicates the possibility of proto-enculturation, the transmission and perpetuation of learned behaviour through hereditary pathways that are neither genetic or epigenetic." http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12304-013-9164-x View in LinkedIn