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REDUCED COMPLEXITY. "In several independent trematode families, individual species reduced their life cycle to two or even only one host. As several independent reduction events occurred, strong selective forces seem to drive the evolution of reduced life cycles." http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1420-9101.2005.00895.x/full View in LinkedIn

LOW PROBABILITY. "The researchers’ results also show that this is the only way organisms can evolve...Calculations imply [that] the probability of the digital organisms getting that complex all at once is astronomically small." https://lnkd.in/dvEXJwm View in LinkedIn

TRUNCATED COMPLEXITY. "Complex life cycles are a hallmark of parasitic trematodes. In several trematode taxa, however, the life cycle is truncated: fewer hosts are used than in a typical three-host cycle, with fewer transmission events. Eliminating one host from the life cycle can be achieved in at least three different ways. Some trematodes show even more extreme forms of life cycle abbreviations, using only a mollusc to complete their cycle, with or without sexual reproduction." https://lnkd.in/dBG63dR View in LinkedIn

EXAPTATION OF OLD ERRORS. “Complex features arise by building on simpler features. The functions use bits and pieces of older functions, then tweak them here and there to get the new function." https://lnkd.in/dvEXJwm View in LinkedIn

ADDITIONAL COMPLEXITY. "Many parasite species, however, in addition have asexual multiplication in the first intermediate host and free-living stages actively penetrating the second intermediate host (most digenean trematodes, comprising several thousand species). This alternation between asexual and sexual reproduction may have important consequences for shaping the life cycle." http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1420-9101.2005.00895.x/full View in LinkedIn

PARASITIC COMPLEX LIFESTYLES. "Parasitic helminths comprise an astounding diversity of life cycles, using up to four hosts and a diverse array of transmission modes. A widespread and large group of parasites with a complex life cycle are digenean trematodes. The wide majority of trematodes use three hosts." https://lnkd.in/d7s-kUM View in LinkedIn

PLANT COMPLEX LIFESTYLES. "Complex life styles and alternation of generations are characteristic of many plants, a diploid sporophyte alternating with a haploid gametophyte." http://www.jstor.org/stable/2398799?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents View in LinkedIn

"NATURAL DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS are adaptive, scalable and fault-tolerant. Emergence science describes how higher-level self-regulatory behaviour arises in natural systems from many participants following simple rule-sets. Emergence advocates simple communication models, autonomy and independence, enhancing robustness and self-stabilization." http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/login.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1301356&url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpls%2Fabs_all.jsp%3Farnumber%3D1301356 View in LinkedIn

AGENT SOCIAL NETWORKS. "Many complex systems have despite their names quite simple microscopic components. The complexity arises from local interactions." https://lnkd.in/dFZ84SM View in LinkedIn