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ENORMOUS SCALE. “As this thin current sheet grows unstable, a rapid dissipation process quickly expands to a large-scale reconnection event whose effects are observable over a large portion of the coupled magnetosphere-ionosphere system.” https://link.springer.com/article/10.12942/lrsp-2007-1 View in LinkedIn

MAGNETOSPHERE SHAPE. “The current sheet at the tail center has a thickness of only a few hundred kilometers (comparable to the thermal ion gyroradius), and the magnetic field component normal to the current sheet becomes very small, only a few nanotesla.” https://link.springer.com/article/10.12942/lrsp-2007-1 View in LinkedIn

VIOLENT OUTPUT. “Substorms typically occur at a rate of four to five per day, each lasting typically two to three hours. They are initiated by enhanced dayside reconnection and hence increased energy input to the magnetosphere. This causes a configuration change in the magnetosphere including enhancement of the magnetospheric current systems and formation of a thin and intense current sheet from near-geostationary distance outward.” https://link.springer.com/article/10.12942/lrsp-2007-1 View in LinkedIn

ENERGY VENTING. “Variability in the north-south orientation of the interplanetary magnetic field causes episodic energy loading-dissipation cycles termed magnetospheric substorms.” https://link.springer.com/article/10.12942/lrsp-2007-1 View in LinkedIn

SOLAR WIND. “As it takes several hours of southward interplanetary field and/or high solar wind speed to create a magnetic storm, they often follow from the interaction of a fast solar wind stream, an interplanetary magnetic cloud, an ICME, or other coherent solar wind structure.” https://link.springer.com/article/10.12942/lrsp-2007-1 View in LinkedIn

MAGNETIC STORMS. “Magnetospheric substorms require a period of enhanced energy input (southward interplanetary field) from 30 minutes to 1 hour. If the energy input continues significantly longer (≥3 h), a magnetic storm develops.” https://link.springer.com/article/10.12942/lrsp-2007-1 View in LinkedIn

UNCERTAINTIES. “It is debated whether the substorm-associated magnetic field variations and the associated (inductive) electric fields are necessary for the buildup of the ring current energy density.” https://link.springer.com/article/10.12942/lrsp-2007-1 View in LinkedIn

SUBSTORMS. “While substorms can occur without magnetic storms, almost all storms include also substorm activity. The interaction of the inner magnetosphere storm-associated processes with the magnetotail substorm-associated processes is highly complex, and presently under active study.” https://link.springer.com/article/10.12942/lrsp-2007-1 View in LinkedIn

MASSIVE EVENTS. “Storms as largest magnetospheric disturbances are associated with many of the space weather phenomena.” https://link.springer.com/article/10.12942/lrsp-2007-1 View in LinkedIn