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SEMINAL FINDING. “R.G. Steinhardt Jr. published his PhD thesis, “An X-ray photoelectron spectrometer for chemical analysis” (Leihigh University) in 1950. He was also the first to recognize that “X-ray photoelectron spectra are profoundly influenced by the chemical and physical nature of the surface under investigation.” https://lnkd.in/eDZvjevE View in LinkedIn

ORBITAL SHELLS. “In 1925 H. Robinson, a pioneer who dedicated his entire scientific career to XPS, wrote that, “…an accurate knowledge of the energies associated with the different electronic orbits within the atoms is essential to the further development of the theory of atomic structure.” (XPS = X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy). https://lnkd.in/eDZvjevE View in LinkedIn

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MASSIVE DISRUPTION. “The Great Oxidation Event (GOE) was a time interval when the Earth's atmosphere and the shallow ocean first experienced a rise in the amount of oxygen. This occurred approximately 2.4–2.0 Ga (billion years ago). The sudden injection of toxic oxygen into an anaerobic biosphere caused the extinction of many existing anaerobic species on Earth. The event is inferred to have constituted a mass extinction.” https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Oxidation_Event View in LinkedIn

PHOTOELECTRON SPEEDS. “In 1918 a Harvard University researcher, Mang-Fuh Hu in the first XPS paper reported, “some preliminary results in a determination of the maximum emission velocity of the photoelectrons from metals at X-ray frequencies”.” (XPS = X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy). https://lnkd.in/eDZvjevE View in LinkedIn

BROAD BAND ELECTRONS. “Other scientists, including Henry Moseley, Rawlinson and Robinson, independently performed various experiments to sort out the details in the broad bands.” https://lnkd.in/eDZvjevE View in LinkedIn

EXPANDED OBSERVATIONS. “Two years after Einstein's publication, in 1907, P.D. Innes, a PhD student at that time, experimented with a Röntgen tube, Helmholtz coils, a magnetic field hemisphere (an electron kinetic energy analyser), and photographic plates, to record broad bands of emitted electrons as a function of velocity, in effect recording the first XPS spectrum.” (XPS = X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy). https://lnkd.in/eDZvjevE View in LinkedIn

LIGHT + MATTER. “Other phenomena where light affects the movement of electric charges include the photoconductive effect (also known as photoconductivity or photoresistivity), the photovoltaic effect, and the photoelectrochemical effect.” https://lnkd.in/eDZvjevE View in LinkedIn

IMPACT. “Research on the photoelectric effect resulted in important steps in understanding the quantum nature of light and electrons and influenced the formation of the concept of wave–particle duality.” https://lnkd.in/eDZvjevE View in LinkedIn