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COOPERATION. "Such transitions are thought to be based on cooperation between the lower-level units, and recent models for the evolution of multicellularity are based on the concept of division of labour, typically between soma and germ cells." http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2011/12/05/rspb.2011.1999.short View in LinkedIn

CHEATER FITNESS. "In a mixed population, the selfish cheater benefits from the cooperative behaviour of the cooperators, without paying the cost. Consequently, the selfish cheater has a higher fitness than the cooperators and spreads through the population, despite the fact that this leads to a decline in mean fitness." http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982207014996 View in LinkedIn

SELFISH CHEATERS. "In the absence of one of the mechanisms discussed in this review, natural selection favours selfish individuals who do not cooperate. Consider a population of cooperators (‘C’) in which an uncooperative, selfish cheater (‘S’) arises through mutation or migration." http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982207014996 View in LinkedIn

COOPERATION AND EVOLUTIONARY THEORY. "A behaviour is cooperative if it provides a benefit to another individual and if it has evolved at least partially because of this benefit. Such behaviours pose a problem to evolutionary theory because — all else being equal — they would reduce the relative fitness of the performer of that behaviour and hence be selected against." http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982207014996 View in LinkedIn

TO THE CONTRARY. "However, cooperation can be found at all levels of biological organisation: genes cooperate in genomes, organelles cooperate to form eukaryotic cells, cells cooperate to make multicellular organisms, bacterial parasites cooperate to overcome host defences, animals breed cooperatively, and humans and insects cooperate to build societies." http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982207014996 View in LinkedIn

NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES? "Natural selection favours genes that increase an organism's ability to survive and reproduce. This would appear to lead to a world dominated by selfish behaviour." https://lnkd.in/dR7H7Yw View in LinkedIn

DIVISION OF LABOR AND SPECIALIZATION. "The fitness advantage of such a division of labour is an important, if not crucial, factor in the emergence and evolution of multicellularity and cell specialization. In fact, the unicellular ancestors often already possess the prototypes of regulatory mechanisms that are needed to maintain cell specialization in multicellular forms." http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2011/12/05/rspb.2011.1999.short View in LinkedIn

LOWER-LEVEL COMPLEXITY LOSS. "A hypothesis has been advanced recently predicting that, in evolution, as higher-level entities arise from associations of lower-level organisms, and as these entities acquire the ability to feed, reproduce, defend themselves, and so on, the lower-level organisms will tend to lose much of their internal complexity." http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1554/0014-3820(2002)056%5B0441:ACDOCI%5D2.0.CO%3B2 View in LinkedIn

GENETIC COMPLEXITY. "Further examination of the DNA record suggests that these increases in gene complexity are the product of evolutionary innovation, tinkering, and expansion of genetic material." http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.genet.42.110807.091513 View in LinkedIn

ELABORATED ANIMALIA. "Escher exploited these basic patterns in his tessellations, applying what geometers would call reflections, glide reflections, translations, and rotations to obtain a greater variety of patterns. He also elaborated these patterns by distorting the basic shapes to render them into animals, birds, and other figures." https://lnkd.in/d_HZ4K8 View in LinkedIn