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HAPOID CELL LINES. "In vertebrates, the first haploid cell lines were obtained more than 40 years ago from frogs. Despite this, the availability of isolated vertebrate haploid cell lines is limited. Mammalian (especially human) haploid cell lines are of particular interest, because genetic screening in mammalian cells is directly applicable to medicinal and pharmacological research." https://lnkd.in/gHK6Jfp View in LinkedIn

VIRGIN BIRTH OF FEMALES. "While male-producing parthenogenesis is rare, female-producing parthenogenesis is widespread among animals and mostly obligate, with many documented cases in species-rich invertebrate groups such as insects, nematodes and crustaceans, and with only few examples in vertebrates." https://lnkd.in/gvZ8CFZ View in LinkedIn

"IN DIPLOID CELLS, heterozygous mutations often lead to no phenotypic changes because a functional allele on a second chromosome set can mask the effects of the disruption of the same allele on the first chromosome set." http://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/16/10/23604/htm View in LinkedIn

AUTOMICTIC. "Thus, automictic parthenogenesis is the mechanism underlying the occasional production of sons and daughters well known for many species of bagworm moths and recently described in some reptile species, including Komodo dragons and snakes." http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982215007824 View in LinkedIn

"PLOIDY refers to the number of sets of chromosomes in a cell. Diploid, meaning two chromosome sets, is the most common ploidy in animals. Diploid animals generally produce haploid gametes: for example, a mouse (M. musculus) has two genome sets (2n = 40) in somatic cells, and generates haploid (n = 20) sperm and oocytes. However, these haploid cells are generally limited in their life cycle." https://lnkd.in/gHK6Jfp View in LinkedIn

WHY SO PREVALENT. "We therefore suggest that constraints, resulting in an inability to overcome the changes in reproduction associated with the evolution of meiosis, should again be included in the debate over why sex is so prevalent." https://lnkd.in/gGTTSzx View in LinkedIn

HIGHER FITNESS. "The genetic data we present here, along with our previous work demonstrating higher fitness for sexual reproduction and developmental constraints on asexual reproduction, suggest that returning to an asexual mode of reproduction is improbable although there appears to be genetic variation in ability to reproduce sexually or asexually." https://lnkd.in/gGTTSzx View in LinkedIn

HARD TO GO BACK. "The evolution of sex itself may limit the ability of an organism to evolve parthenogenesis secondarily. Rather than asexual reproduction being at a competitive ecological disadvantage, constraints resulting from the evolution of meiosis and subsequent associated changes may place important limitations on the ability of an organism to return to an asexual mode of reproduction once sex has evolved." https://lnkd.in/gGTTSzx View in LinkedIn

OPTIONAL VIRGIN BIRTHS. "Facultatively parthenogenetic species of animals do exist and such organisms could provide tests of hypotheses related to constraints on asexual reproduction." https://lnkd.in/gGTTSzx View in LinkedIn

"THE EVOLUTIONARY ORIGIN of sex can differ from the evolutionary maintenance of sex and different factors may help maintain sex than lead to its evolution. The evolutionary return to asexual reproduction from a sexual ancestor requires a number of simultaneous changes: eggs may not mature until stimulated by mating, eggs may not develop without stimulation by sperm, and diploidy must be restored unless meiosis is suppressed." https://lnkd.in/gGTTSzx View in LinkedIn