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SECONDARY GAINS. "The reductive trend is countered by proliferation of genes involved in parasite-host interaction such as, for example, ankyrin repeat proteins that act as secreted virulence factors." https://lnkd.in/egqWFZp View in LinkedIn

REDUCTION CONSTRAINTS. "The evolution of the genomes of parasites, symbionts and commensals is not a one-way path of reduction. On the contrary, the reduction ratchet is constrained by the advantages of retaining certain metabolic pathways that complement the host metabolism." https://lnkd.in/egqWFZp View in LinkedIn

COMMENSALS. "Beyond parasites and symbionts, reductive evolution was observed in several groups of organisms that evolved a commensal life style. One of the best-characterized cases involves the Lactobacillales, a group of Gram-positive bacteria that is extremely common in a variety of animal- and plant-associated habitats...substantial gene loss, from ∼3,000 genes in the common ancestor of Bacilli to ∼1,300–1,800 genes in various Lactobacilli species." https://lnkd.in/egqWFZp View in LinkedIn

"DEEP GENOME REDUCTION, with the smallest sequenced genome of only 2.9 Mb, is also observed in Microsporidia, the eukaryotic intracellular parasites that appear to be highly derived fungi. The most extreme genome reduction among eukaryotes is observed in nucleomorphs which are remnants of algal endosymbionts present in cryptophytes and chlorarachniophytes and retain only a few hundred genes." https://lnkd.in/egqWFZp View in LinkedIn

TWO STEP CHANGE. "Microsporidian genome evolution thus appears to have proceeded in at least two major steps: an ancestral remodelling of the proteome upon transition to intracellular parasitism that involved reduction but also selective expansion, followed by a secondary compaction of genome architecture in some, but not all, lineages." https://lnkd.in/eDniEh6 View in LinkedIn

MASSIVE LOSS. "Gene length reduction and massive loss of metabolic capacity in the common ancestor was accompanied by the evolution of novel microsporidian-specific protein families, whose conservation among microsporidians, against a background of reductive evolution, suggests they may have important functions in their parasitic lifestyle." https://lnkd.in/eDniEh6 View in LinkedIn

GENETIC OUTSOURCING. "Phytoplasma genomes lack the pentose phosphate pathway genes and genes encoding F1Fo-type ATP synthase. Therefore, ATP synthesis in phytoplasmas is strongly dependent on glycolysis instead of ATP synthase." Read the well-characterized pathways changed in different host relationships. ATP synthase generates all the energy needs of a cell, a truly radical outsourcing. https://lnkd.in/eEP5JyK View in LinkedIn

COMPLEX HOST-SWITCHING. "Since phytoplasmas are endocellular parasites that lack a cell wall, their membrane proteins and secreted proteins function directly in the host cell. One-third of the genes is affected during host switching between plant and insect, suggesting that the phytoplasma alters its gene expression in response to its host and may use transporters, membrane proteins, secreted proteins, and metabolic enzymes in a host-specific manner." https://lnkd.in/eEP5JyK View in LinkedIn

FUNCTIONAL TRANSFER. "These genomic features suggest that phytoplasmas are highly dependent on metabolic compounds from their hosts. The functions of other genes in the phytoplasmal plasmids remain unknown. However, some genes are apparently related to adaptation to the insect host. Phytoplasmas are transmitted by specific insect species in a persistent manner." https://lnkd.in/eEP5JyK View in LinkedIn

MINIMAL CELL. "In 2007 Venter transplanted the genome of one Mycoplasma bacterium into another. Venter and his colleagues also synthesized a trimmed down, artificial version of Mycoplasma's DNA, a project known as the Minimal Genome Project. Attempts to implant the synthetic DNA all failed, until now." A drive to create a universal cell recipient for synthetic life. https://lnkd.in/e9ZJKP5 View in LinkedIn