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BAND AIDS AND BANDAGES. "These two basic characteristics pinpoint one of the main challenges encountered by these enzymes: how to favour the energy-productive processes over competing reactions in which the high energy intermediates decay without going through the useful energy converting step(s). In other words, to be efficient they must avoid back-reactions, short-circuits, by-passes, side-reactions, futile cycles and leaks." https://lnkd.in/dxpcWx8 View in LinkedIn

RESIDUAL ABILITIES. "The observation that fingertips of children have regenerative capacity indicates that the ability for a modest level of regeneration was retained in a context-specific format even in higher mammals." http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ar.b.20082/full View in LinkedIn

LOSS OF FUNCTION WITH COMPLEXITY. "This suggests that the absence of regenerative ability in mammals is a loss of function, perhaps a consequence of physiological adaptations important for survival following injury." https://lnkd.in/d_NDPcr View in LinkedIn

COMPLEXITY DIMINISHES REGENERATION. "A cursory look at regenerative ability across phylogenetic groups leads to the conclusion that regenerative potential declines with the evolution of complexity. Thus, simple organisms like Hydra and planaria have tremendous regenerative capabilities, whereas vertebrates tend to regenerate poorly." http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ar.b.20082/full View in LinkedIn

ORIGIN OF REGENERATION. "The first question that arises is whether regenerative ability that is unique to a specific group of animals evolved along a particular phylogenetic path or whether regenerative ability was lost in many groups, including humans, and retained in others. In other words, is regenerative ability the result of a gain of function in some groups or the loss of function in other groups."" " https://lnkd.in/d_NDPcr View in LinkedIn

OTHER CASES. "Limb regeneration can also be observed in insects." https://muse.jhu.edu/article/53800/summary View in LinkedIn

HIGH REGENERATION. "Sea urchins are highly regenerative animals with indeterminate growth and life-long reproduction, and thus offer the opportunity to investigate mechanisms for long-term maintenance of tissue homeostasis and regenerative capacity. In addition, different species of sea urchins have very different reported life expectancies" of up to 100 years.” https://lnkd.in/dQZUv9k View in LinkedIn

BIRDS AND MAMMALS. "Birds cannot regenerate limbs at any stage of development and, surprisingly, mammals have slightly better limb regenerative capacity than that of birds." http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1440-169X.2007.00973.x/full View in LinkedIn

NO REGENERATION. "While urodele amphibians (newts and salamanders) can regenerate limbs as adults, other tetrapods (reptiles, birds and mammals) cannot and just undergo wound healing." http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1440-169X.2007.00973.x/full View in LinkedIn

SO ENDS this case study of how the photosynthetic apparatus of plants had to adapt imperfectly to the emergence of an oxygenated atmosphere. Molecular vestiges suited for different purposes are littered through cellular systems. It is not just wisdom teeth, feet and the human tailbone: every aspect of life shows evidence of the wrench of sometimes clumsy adaptation to meet new challenges. View in LinkedIn