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"GLUTAMATE is an indispensable neurotransmitter...glutamate recognition requires an arginine residue in the base of the binding site, which originated at least three distinct times according to phylogenetic analysis. Most remarkably, the arginine emerged on the principal face of the binding site in the Lophotrochozoan lineage, but 65 amino acids upstream, on the complementary face, in the Ecdysozoan lineage." https://lnkd.in/eTM3d8x View in LinkedIn

PRION TRANSMISSION. "The precise mechanism by which prions are transmitted from cell to cell remains yet to be fully elucidated, although three hypotheses have been proposed: direct cell-cell contact, tunnelling nanotubes and exosomes." https://lnkd.in/ea-rNpb View in LinkedIn

INDEPENDENT ANTIFREEZE MOLECULES. "Characterizations of the AFGP genes from notothenioids and the Arctic cod show that their AFGPs are both encoded by a family of polyprotein genes, with each gene encoding multiple AFGP molecules linked in tandem by small cleavable spacers. Despite these apparent similarities, detailed analyses of the AFGP gene sequences and substructures provide strong evidence that AFGPs in these two polar fishes in fact evolved independently." (AFGP = antifreeze glycoproteins). " " https://lnkd.in/ewcyhgC View in LinkedIn

ROLE OF EXOSOMES. "Exosomes play important roles in intercellular communication, including regulating immune responses following bacterial invasion, presentation of antigens for activation of T cells, and more recently, a novel mechanism of intercellular transfer of mRNA and miRNA, resulting in an additional level of regulation." https://lnkd.in/ea-rNpb View in LinkedIn

FISH ANTIFREEZE. "Antarctic notothenioid fishes and several northern cods are phylogenetically distant (in different orders and superorders), yet produce near-identical antifreeze glycoproteins (AFGPs) to survive in their respective freezing environments." https://lnkd.in/ewcyhgC View in LinkedIn

MEMBRANE VESICLES. "Exosomes are small membrane-bound extracellular vesicles (80-160 nm) released from cells, and have been implicated in many diseases, including cancer, viral infection and neurodegenerative diseases" as well as miRNA transmitted effects in gene regulation. https://lnkd.in/ea-rNpb View in LinkedIn

MOLECULAR EVOLUTION. "Our results suggest that, whereas convergent molecular evolution is relatively common, adaptive molecular convergence linked to phenotypic convergence is comparatively rare." https://lnkd.in/eBMUXjN View in LinkedIn

PRION DISEASES are caused by a mis-folded normal protein that is infectious, that acts as a template to induce other normal proteins to become mis-folded. Mad Cow disease is one example, that famously was contracted by eating infected meat of cows fed with infected cow meat. Clearly, these proteins were not destroyed in the human gut. Definitely Grey Zone entities. View in LinkedIn

PERVASIVE CONVERGENCE. "Systematic analyses of convergent sequence evolution in 805,053 amino acids within 2,326 orthologous coding gene sequences compared across 22 mammals (including four newly sequenced bat genomes) revealed signatures consistent with convergence in nearly 200 loci. This first attempt to detect genome-wide convergent sequence evolution across divergent taxa reveals the phenomenon to be much more pervasive than previously recognized." https://lnkd.in/epGtvrz View in LinkedIn

IN ONLY 71 YEARS, we have so misused a lifesaving class of antibiotic molecules that they are almost unusable, and have so disincentivized innovators that the pipeline is dry. We have only ourselves to blame. View in LinkedIn